Two creation story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Two creation story - Essay Example Having read through Genesis 1-2, I came with the idea that there are two different creation stories in the bible. The above table gives us some of the ideas that can clearly show us that there are two different stories regarding creation. If you read biblical stories expecting them to tell you exactly what happened, be prepared for a shock as you won’t find the reality less you dig deeper in chapter one of the book of genesis. People are often surprised to realize that God is given two different names in Genesis 1 and 2: God and Lord God. This is not due to some conspiracy by those that translate the Bible into English. â€Å"God† in the first story and the â€Å"lord God†, in the second are used consistently in Hebrew. The different story tellers are just but people. Looking at the way these stories are told, the first story is rather orderly. In that account, God speaks and something comes into existence or being, God sees that it is good, and there is evening and morning respectively: day one ( or two, three, e.t.c) I like to picture God in Genesis 1standing offstage with microphone, booming the lines, â€Å"let there be†¦..† In speaking things into being, instead of being right in our midst, God comes across as somewhat removed. Theologians describe this representation of God as being transcendent. In the second story of creation according to me, Lord God creates things in a slightly different order than what we see in Genesis chapter 1. There are no days that delineated in this account , and God Lord does not speak things into being. This account could almost start with, â€Å"Once upon a time†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  Here Lord God seems to be right in the middle of things,. Even using hands but the question is, â€Å" does God really and really have physical

Meeting Child Nutritional Requirements

Meeting Child Nutritional Requirements Unit 4 Health promotion and development. 1. Construct a table to indentify the main government guidelines on food and nutrition, and evaluate the ways in which they can be incorporated into child care settings. 2. Identify and describe the type of food that are unsuitable for babies and young children. You should specify the reason why these foods are unsuitable. There are many different food groups which should be avoided for babies from 0 to 24 months such as: Salt (Babies shouldn’t eat much salt as it isnt good for their kidneys.Dont add salt to your baby’s foodanddont usestock cubes or gravy as theyre often high in salt. Remember this when you’re cooking for the family if you plan to give the same food to your baby.) Sugar (Your baby doesn’t need sugar.By avoiding sugary snacks and drinks, youll help to prevent tooth decay. Use mashed banana, breast milkor formula milk to sweeten food if necessary.) Honey (Occasionally, honey contains bacteria which can produce toxins in a baby’s intestines, leading to infant botulism, which is a very serious illness. It’s best not to give your child honey until they’re one year old. Honey is a sugar, so avoiding it will alsohelp to prevent tooth decay.) Nut (Whole nuts, including peanuts, shouldnt be given to children under five as they can choke on them. As long as theres no history of food allergies or other allergies in your family you can giveyour baby peanuts once theyre six months old as long as theyre crushed or ground into peanut butter) Low Fat (Fat is an important source of calories and some vitamins for babies and young children. It’s better for babies and young children under two tohave full-fat milk, yoghurt and cheese rather than low-fat varieties. SeeUnderstanding food groupsfor more information.) Saturated Fat (Fat is an important source of calories and some vitamins for babies and young children. It’s better for babies and young children under two tohave full-fat milk, yoghurt and cheese rather than low-fat varieties. SeeUnderstanding food groupsfor more information.) Saturated (Dont give your child too many foods that are high in saturated orbad fat, such as crisps, chips, cheap burgers and cakes.) Shark, Swordfish and Marlin (Dont give your baby shark, swordfish or marlin.The amount of mercury in these fish can affect a baby’s growing nervous system.) Raw Shellfish (Raw shellfish can increase the risk of food poisoning so it’s best not to give it to babies.) Raw Eggs (Raw shellfish can increase the risk of food poisoning so it’s best not to give it to babies) It is equally as important to ensure that certain food groups are avoided for children between 3 to 5 year olds these foods could include: Salt (high salt intake may mean high blood pressure, osteoporosis, kidney stones, heart disease and strokes. Osteoporosis and kidney stones have even been detected in children – proving salt intake is a problem for their present as well as future health.) Fat ( Not all fats should be avoided as there are good fats and bad fats. Bad fats can lead to weight gain and obesity and later life could cause heart disease, stroke and high blood pressure. Sugar (The ugly truth is that added sugar means empty calories that put kids at risk of obesity and health problems that can show up as early as adolescence.) Processed foods (Processed foods made with trans fats, saturated fats, and large amounts of sodium and sugar arent good for you. Theyre low in vitamins and minerals and eating too much of them is bad for your waistline and your health) 3.Design a child record form for a new child joining a home child setting with a specific dietary requirement. Describe the dietary requirements, and why it should be documented accurately Child record form Child Name: Record number:. Address. Post code. Emergency Contact1 Relation: Parent/Guardian. Contact Number Work.. Other Emergency Contact2 Relation: Parent/Guardian. Contact Number Work. Other Doctors Address.. Doctors Number.. Doctors Name.. Declaration I Declare that the information provided on this form about my child is a true and accurate reflection of the best of my knowledge. Parent/Guardian PRINT: Parent/Guardian Signature.. Date:. Child care Provider PRINT.. Child Care Provider Signature. Date. Medical Condition and allergies Form Medication.Dosage RequirementsDaily Intake.. Declaration I Declare that the information provided on this form about my child is a true and accurate reflection of the best of my knowledge. Parent/Guardian PRINT: Parent/Guardian Signature.. Date:. Child care Provider PRINT.. Child Care Provider Signature. Date.. It is always important to understand and document a childs dietary needs carefully and accurately. This is important to ensure that children are receiving care and safety to meet their individual requirements for example, if a child is to have a allergy towards nuts the care coordinator must ensure that they are meeting a nut free dietary requirement and ensuring that epi-pen and medication are correctly labelled. It is almost if not more important for all the care coordinators to understand how and when to administer medication when needed in case of emergencies. It is not just allergies that a care provider needs to be aware about but also about religious needs and beliefs. For example Adventis do not eat seafood and pork whereas a Muslim would require a Halal a meat. Depending on the type of child care setting the child attends, it may be necessary to share information on dietary and culture requirements with kitchen staff and additional member of child care staff. 4.Define the 4 chronic diseases identified in the course manual, and discuss the ways in which development can be affected. The 4 main childhood chronic diseases, asthma, diabetes, cystic fibrosis and cerebral palsy. A definition of asthma is: A respiratory condition marked by attacks of spasm in the bronchi of the lungs, causing difficulty in breathing. It is usually connected to allergic reaction or other forms of hypersensitivity. Asthma can be a very serious and debilitating condition. It can restrict the air flow into your lungs thus causing asthma attack. It is a very common childhood condition as every 1 out of 10 children will have this. Asthma does not usually affect development of a child however, may hinder emotional and intellectual development. Serious asthmatic conditions could result in children in being away from school and missing a huge part of early education in order to control the asthmatic disease. a common factor of asthma is it is allergy relegated and is also linked with eczema. for young children this condition can be very emotional as asthma attacks could be frightening therefor e children and can lead to undue anxiety and distress. Diabetes is another chronic childhood disease Throughout the world, incidences of diabetes are on the rise, and consequently so is diabetes amongst children. Diabetes is a condition where the amount of glucose in your blood is too high because the body cannot use it properly.Most children are affected by type 1 diabetes in childhood. However, the number of children and young adults affected by type 2 diabetes is beginning to rise, particularly in America. Approximately 90% of young people with diabetes suffer from type 1 and the number of patients who are children varies from place to place. A figure of 17 per 100,000 children developing diabetes each year has been reported. As metabolic syndrome, obesity and bad diets spread, so too have the first incidences of type 2 diabetes, previously incredibly rare. Diabetes can affect retinopathy which can cause blindness and nephropathy which affects the nerves which can cause physical impairments. Cystic fibrosis also known as mucoviscidosis, is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder that affects most critically the lungs, and also the pancreas, liver, and intestine. It is characterized by abnormal transport of chloride and sodium across an epithelium, leading to thick, viscous secretions. Approximately 1 in 25 population have this faulty gene. This condition can be very physically debilitating for a child. Cerebral palsy is a condition that affects muscle control and movement. It is usually caused by an injury to the brain before, during or after birth. Children with cerebral palsy have difficulties in controlling muscles and movements as they grow and develop.

Hybrid Vehicles and Their Effect on the Environment Essay -- Cars Caus

Today, people use their own personal vehicles to travel more than ever before. Personal transportation is no longer considered a luxury; it is now considered a necessity. The number of cars in the United States has been growing steadily since the 1970s. The number of miles traveled by cars has risen nearly 150 percent, yet the United States population has only grown roughly 40 percent during that time (hybridcars.com, Driving Trends). Although it may seem like we are advancing into the future, in reality, we are moving backwards from the effects these vehicles have on our bodies and the environment. The pollution produced by these vehicles has brought us to the day where we must find other modes of transportation that cause less harm to the world in which we live. Advances in technology have developed hybrid vehicles to try and slow down the amount of pollution. Driving a hybrid vehicle, instead of a conventional gas powered vehicle, can reduce the amount of pollution that affects our lives and the environment around us. Harmful Pollutants Carbon Dioxide Many hazardous pollutants escape from the internal combustion of the engine. Conventional gas powered vehicles use irreplaceable fossil fuels to run. When burned, these fossil fuels create numerous toxins like carbon dioxide (Larminie 246). Carbon dioxide is considered the main greenhouse gas that creates the foundation for global warming (hybridcars.com, pollutants). This harmful pollutant may not have a serious effect on people at first, but it does have consequential effects on the environment that in turn put people in danger (Nutramed.com). The major consequence caused by global warming is the rise in average temperature. This results in a domino... ...ster, and West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 2003. Nutramed.com. 2009. Air Quality: Airborne Illness Car Exhaust - Health Effects. 20 Nov. 2014. http://www.mutramed.com/environment/carsepa.htm Rqriley.com. 17 June 2012. Electric And Hybrid Vehicles: An Overview of the Benefits, Challenges, and Technologies. 21 Nov. 2014. http://www.rqriley.com/ev-tech.htm Wikipedia.org. 20 Nov. 2014. Global Warming. 20 Nov. 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warming#Effects Wikipedia.org. 21 Nov. 2014. Hybrid Vehicle. 21 Nov. 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicles Wikipedia.org. 18 Nov. 2014. Renewable Energy. 21 Nov. 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy Wikipedia.org. 15 Nov. 2014. Sea Level Rise. 20 Nov. 2014. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise#Effects_of_sea_level_rise

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Current Issues: Gangs 2011, n. p. Copyright @ 2011 ReferencePoint Press, Website: www. referencepointpress. com. P. O. Box 27779, San Diego, CA 92198. Phone: 858-618-1314. Fax: 858-618-1730. All rights reserved. Current Issues: Gangs By Peggy J. Parks Contents Gangs at a Glance Overview How Serious a Problem Are Gangs? Primary Source Quotes Facts and Illustrations Why Do Young People Join Gangs? Primary Source Quotes Facts and Illustrations Can People Leave the Gang Life Behind? Primary Source Quotes Facts and Illustrations Can Gang Violence Be Stopped? Primary Source QuotesFacts and Illustrations Key People and Advocacy Groups Chronology Related Organizations For Further Research Source Notes About the Author Gangs at a Glance Gangs and Gang Members The U. S. Department of Justice estimates that more than 20,000 gangs with a total of about 1 million members are criminally active in the United States. Gang Migration Gangs are no longer confined to large cities. The FBI states that ga ng activity is rapidly spreading to outlying suburban and rural communities throughout the United States. Types of Gangs Four main types of gangs identified by the U.S. Department of Justice are street gangs, outlaw motorcycle gangs, prison gangs, and military gangs. Gangs and Crime Law enforcement officials say that gangs commit a wide range of crimes, including distribution of drugs, weapons trafficking, drive-by shootings, armed robbery, assault, identity theft, and homicide. In many communities gangs are responsible for as much as 80 percent of crime. Cities with Gang Problems The U. S. Department of Justice has identified Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York as the top three cities for the most gangs and gang-related crime.Reasons for Joining Gangs Young people join gangs for many reasons including the desire to belong to a family-like group, protection from rival gangs, the ability to make money (usually from stealing or selling drugs), prestige, and ready access to drugs. Quitt ing Gangs Whether people are able to leave gangs depends on the particular gang and its rules. Jumping out (being beaten by gang members) is a common way of letting someone out. Some gangs expect their members to remain committed for life and threaten them with death if they try to quit.Fighting Gang Violence In cities throughout the United States, the FBI and state and local law enforcement officials are focusing on the most violent street gangs in an effort to capture their leaders and get them off the streets. Overview â€Å"Gangs are morphing, multiplying, and migrating—entrenching themselves not just in our inner cities but increasingly in our ever-sprawling suburbs and wide-open rural spaces. † —Federal Bureau of Investigation, a law enforcement agency of the U. S. Department of Justice. Gangs and gang-involved kids exist at some level in every community. Certain groups have decided to use violence and retribution, and their acts are affecting all of us. à ¢â‚¬  —Steven D. Strachan, the chief of police of Kent, Washington, a suburb of Seattle. At 16 years old, Melody Ross was thoroughly enjoying life. She had just begun her junior year at Wilson High School in Long Beach, California, where she was an honors student and a pole-vaulter on the track team. She was popular and known for being friendly, kind, and someone who always had a sunny smile on her face.On the evening of October 30, 2009, Melody and her friends went to their school's home ­coming football game. After the game ended, the girls left the stadium and were sitting on the curb in front of the school. Suddenly the loud crack of gunshots filled the air. A feud had broken out between members of rival gangs, and they were shooting at each other—with bystanders caught in the crossfire. By the time the violence ended, three people lay on the ground, wounded and bleeding: two men and Melody. Ambulances rushed them to the hospital, where the men were treated for non-life-threatening injuries.Melody, however, was not so fortunate. She died of a severe bullet wound in her side. Her family and friends were devastated, and as a memorial to her, a classmate named Dylan Vassberg created a Facebook page entitled RIP Melody Ross. â€Å"Every kid our age–we don't ever think we're going to die,† he says. â€Å"We never think that. We think we're going to college and we're going to have a long life and die of old age. Not die because someone decided to shoot a gun. We never think of that. It's not something that crosses our mind ever. Not even fathomable, really. 1 How Serious a Problem Are Gangs? Although the precise number of gangs and gang members (known as gangbangers) is not known, the U. S. Department of Justice makes estimates based on information it receives from state and local law enforcement officials. In January 2009 the Justice Department's National Gang Intelligence Center released a report entitled National Gang Threat As sessment 2009. The report states that more than 20,000 violent gangs with a total of approximately 1 million members were criminally active in the United States as of September 2008.The report's authors state that â€Å"gangs pose a serious threat to public safety. † They warn that throughout the country, gang activity is rapidly spreading from large cities to outlying suburban and rural areas. This, they predict, will cause gang-related violent crime to remain at high levels and likely increase. They write: â€Å"As these gangs encounter resistance from local gangs or other drug distributors in these communities, an increase in violent incidents such as assaults, drive-by shootings, and homicides can be expected. â€Å"2 The Evolution of GangsNo one knows exactly when gangs first formed, but they are often assumed to have been around for centuries. According to Lou Savelli, who is a retired New York City police sergeant and cofounder of the East Coast Gang Investigators As sociation, the word thug dates back to India during the 1200s. It is derived from â€Å"Thugz,† an Indian word that referred to a gang of criminals who traveled throughout the country terrorizing towns. Savelli adds that like gangs today, the Thugz had their own symbols, hand signs, slang language, and rituals.Gang activity is thought to have begun in the United States early in the country's history. Journalist Ed Grabianowski explains: â€Å"Criminal gangs have certainly been around as long as crime itself—it doesn't take a criminal mastermind to realize there is strength in numbers. The urbanization that accompanied the Industrial Revolution gave rise to the modern street gang. â€Å"3 Throughout the 1800s, as more people immigrated to America from other countries, gangs such as the Monk Eastman Gang and Five Points Gang formed and terrorized the streets of New York.But it was the 1920s that ushered in the heyday of gang activity in the United States because of a n otorious gangster named Al Capone, also called Scarface. This was a time known as Prohibition, when the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution made the sale or distribution of alcohol illegal. Supporters hoped the legislation would transform American society for the better, but its effects were quite different from what they expected. Once alcohol was no longer legally available, criminal gangs began to distribute it on the black market.These gangs developed rapidly and continued to grow in power, which caused a steep rise in violent crime. Capone and his gang of criminals were responsible for a wave of violence in the Chicago area during the 1920s and 1930s. Savelli says this led to his becoming known as most violent gangster in Chicago and perhaps in all of the United States. Capone's reputation spread far and wide, and his actions strongly influenced the activities of would-be gangsters throughout the country. By the time Prohibition ended in 1933, gangs had become entrenched t hroughout the country and were widely known for their connections with violent crime.During the 1950s gang-related crime was rampant in a number of U. S. cities, including Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York, and it was steadily growing. Over the following decades gangs became better organized and continued to expand their activities from cities into neighboring communities, as the Justice Department explains: â€Å"The gang members who migrated from urban areas often formed new, neighborhood-based local gangs. These local gangs generally controlled their territories through violence and intimidation. 4 Gang membership—and associated violent crime—continued to grow throughout the rest of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first. Street Gangs and Motorcycle Outlaws Gangs often differ significantly from one another based on membership requirements, structure, and the ages and ethnicity of the members. Two main types that have been identified by law enforcement off icials are street gangs and outlaw motorcycle gangs. The Justice Department says that street gangs pose a considerable threat to communities because they are the largest group and also control the greatest geographical area. Therefore,† Justice Department authorities explain, criminal activities such as violence and drug trafficking perpetrated by street gangs pose the greatest threat. The threat becomes magnified as national- and regional-level street gangs migrate from urban areas to suburban and rural communities, expanding their influence in most regions and broadening their presence outside the United States to develop associations with . . . criminal organizations in Mexico, Central America, and Canada. 5Most street gangs are local-level gangs that operate in single locations while regional-level street gangs are more organized and larger. Some of the largest and most violent street gangs are Hispanic gangs such as MS ­13, 18th Street, Surenos, and Almighty Latin King and Queen Nation (Latin Kings) and the predominately African American gangs Bloods, Crips, and Black P. Stone Nation. Asian gangs such as the Asian Boyz are also developing a reputation as a result of their links to drug trafficking and violent crimes. Though less common than gangs of other racial and ethnic groups, white gangs also pose a threat.The white supremacist street gang Nazi Low-riders has a growing presence in Southern California, Arizona, Colorado, Florida, and Illinois, and members have been connected with a number of racially motivated violent crimes. Outlaw motorcycle gangs also pose a significant threat because they engage in numerous criminal activities, such as trafficking in weapons and drugs, and often commit violent crimes. State and local law enforcement agencies have identified as many as 520 outlaw motorcycle gangs with an estimated total of 20,000 members of various races and ethnicities.The motorcycle gangs that the FBI considers the greatest threat because of criminal activities are the Sons of Silence, Bandidos, Mongols, Hells Angels, and Outlaws. Gangs Behind Bars Just because people are incarcerated, and even sentenced to life in prison, does not necessarily prevent them from engaging in gang activities. According to the Justice Department, prison gangs are highly structured criminal networks that are active within prisons throughout the United States. It adds that as of September 2008, more than 147,000 documented gang members were incarcerated in federal, state, and local correctional facilities.One state where this is a particularly serious problem is Washington. According to a study released in 2009, gang-affiliated inmates are responsible for 43 percent of all violent crimes that are committed in the state's prisons. The report also states that the Crips are the most represented prison gang, with 2,385 inmate members. Also well known for violence behind bars is the white supremacist gang Aryan Brotherhood and the Latino gangs Barrio Azteca and Mexican Mafia. One gang that has been especially violent in Texas prisons is the Texas Syndicate.In February 2007 federal authorities issued indictments for gang members who were suspected of being responsible for as many as 16 murders outside the state's prisons, including a triple slaying in 2003. The indictment states: â€Å"It is understood that members and prospects of the TS may receive a telephone call and instructions to commit a murder . . . at any time. Regardless of the member's friendship or association with the victim, the orders are to be carried out. â€Å"6 Not only are gangs extremely active in prisons, gang members who have been imprisoned are often the gangs' top leaders.According to Sergeant Jeremy Young, who is a supervisor with the Modesto, California, police street crimes unit, the bottom level of a gang's chain of command is made up of gangbangers who are the â€Å"soldiers† on the street; the mid-level is composed of the leaders o f street crews who run the operation; and the top level are the bosses who are often inside prisons. â€Å"The (gang leaders in the) prisons run the street,† he says. â€Å"A lot of things that start in there end up out here. â€Å"7 Criminal Activities Gangs are involved in a wide range of crimes.These include drug distribution, assault, armed robbery, drive-by shootings, auto theft, identity theft, extortion, weapons trafficking, and homicide. In fact, the National Gang Threat Assessment report says that according to law enforcement officials throughout the United States, criminal gangs commit as much as 80 percent of the crime in many communities. Yet the connection between gangs and crime is a controversial is ­sue. According to the Justice Policy Institute, a Washington, D. C. –based think tank that supports alternatives to incarceration, gang members are not responsible for the biggest share of crime in most jurisdictions.In a July 2007 report, the group stat es that many crimes committed by gang members are unrelated to gang activity, and reliable data on the extent of gang crime do not exist. The report's authors write: â€Å"The available evidence indicates that gang members play a relatively small role in the national crime problem. . . . National estimates and local research findings suggest that gang members may be responsible for fewer than one in 10 homicides; fewer than one in 16 violent offenses; and fewer than one in 20 serious . . . crimes. â€Å"8 Gang-Infested CitiesAlthough gangs have a presence in communities all over the United States, the National Gang Center says that the three cities with the most gangs and worst gang-related crime are Los Angeles, Chicago, and New York. According to John S. Pistole, who is the deputy director of the FBI, Los Angeles is â€Å"ground zero for modern gang activity,† with over 400 gangs and an estimated 40,000 gang members. â€Å"Many gangs were born here, a generation ago,â₠¬  he says. â€Å"But they are no longer limited to Los Angeles. Like a cancer, gangs are spreading to communities across America. â€Å"9Two other California cities where gang-related crime is increasing are San Diego, where gang-related homicides rose 56 percent between 2006 and 2007, and Salinas, where gang-related homicides increased 125 percent during that same period of time. Gangs are also a serious problem in Hartford, Connecticut, and Camden, New Jersey. And Pistole adds that gangs are becoming more active in many other cities including Baltimore, Houston, Washington, D. C. , Denver, Atlanta, Indianapolis, New Orleans, and Omaha, Nebraska. High-Tech Gangbanging The Internet has opened up a whole new way for gangbangers to recruit new members.As a February 2007 ABC News report states: â€Å"By posting online content that glorifies the thug lifestyle, gangs are using the Web to recruit—some using children as young as 8 years old as part of the on ­line recruiting process, known as ‘Net Banging. ‘†10 Sometimes rival gang members spar with each other online, proudly displaying their gang colors, tattoos, and gang hand signs in photos. They also use the Internet to schedule fights with each other as well as brag about crimes that they have committed. By monitoring these sites, federal and state law enforcement officials can track gang activity.Cell phones also play a crucial role in gang operations. Gangbangers communicate with each other by sending text messages, and it is not uncommon for them to use multiple phones that they discard after they have completed criminal operations such as drug trafficking. The Justice Department offers an example: â€Å"The leader of an African American street gang operating on the north side of Milwaukee used more than 20 cell phones to coordinate drug-related activities of the gang: most were prepaid phones that the leader routinely discarded and replaced. 11 Why Do Young People Join Gangs ? Law enforcement professionals say that the issue of why kids join gangs is complex. According to the Justice Policy Institute, no single risk factor or set of factors can accurately predict which young people will become gang members. One of the most common reasons kids join gangs is that they are from broken homes and desperately want to be part of a family-like group, and they perceive gangs as being able to provide that. Brandon Robinson grew up in a housing project in Kansas City, Missouri.As a participant in a 2007 survey about gangs, he told interviewers that many of those who join share the commonality of being from poverty-stricken, dysfunctional backgrounds. â€Å"You got family members on crack and you ain't eating right,† he says. â€Å"Everybody's hungry. â€Å"12 According to Robinson, gang members look out for each other, help feed each other, and stick up for each other, much like a family would. â€Å"That's when you start loving your street,†13 he says.Other reasons for joining gangs include the lure of having money to spend (from stealing or selling drugs), easy access to drugs, and protection from the dangers of the street and rival gangs. Yet many criminal justice experts say that being part of a gang does not keep kids safer at all. In fact, studies have shown that young people who are involved with gangs have a markedly higher likelihood of being injured or killed than those who are not gang-affiliated. Girl Gangs Traditionally, gangs have been dominated by males and that is still true today.But the Justice Department states that female involvement in gangs is on the upswing. A May 2008 study by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention found that in high-crime neighborhoods nearly 30 percent of girls surveyed claimed that they were members of gangs. The report ranked â€Å"young females as the fastest growing offenders in the national juvenile justice population. â€Å"14 One city that has experienced growing problems with girl gangs is Flint, Michigan. Gina Nyovane, a 22-year-old graduate of Flint Northwestern High School, has observed girl gangs in her former school and throughout the city.She says that these gangs are becoming more widespread and more violent, as she explains: â€Å"I hear it all the time. Girls are quick to pull a gun out, faster than a guy. â€Å"15 Over Labor Day weekend in 2009, members of a girl gang called the Goonies followed a car that was carrying members of a rival gang, the Dufflebacks. A young man traveling with the Goonies fired six shots at the other car, killing an 18-year-old male passenger and wounding the female driver. Can People Leave the Gang Life Behind? The common view is that people who join gangs are never allowed to leave them.The Justice Policy Institute says its research has found that gang membership is not a â€Å"one-way street† and that the typical gang member is active for a year or less. The group explains: â€Å"Thi s myth is perpetuated not only by the media but also by gang members who exaggerate the stakes of membership in order to underscore the importance and permanence of their collective bond. â€Å"16 Yet many people say that joining a gang is a lifetime commitment, and the only way someone can leave is by dying or going to prison. Former gang member Hashim Garrett was 15 years old when he was shot six times in the back and legs.Today he struggles to walk and must use forearm crutches because his right leg is paralyzed. In a speech to students at a middle school in 2008, Garrett addressed the realities of gang life: â€Å"They say they're like your family, but your loved ones don't ask much of you. Come home on time, clean up your room, be polite, eat your vegetables. The gang's going to ask more than that. Hold this gun. Hold these drugs. Prove you're wild. Maybe kill somebody. † He adds that most gang members want to quit the gang but are too afraid to do so. If you join the f ootball team and you don't like the coach, you can quit. You can't quit a gang that easy. â€Å"17 Can Gang Violence Be Stopped? Controlling gang proliferation and gang-related crime is one of the most significant challenges facing law enforcement officials every day of the year. Federal agencies such as the FBI and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives have partnered with state and local police departments throughout the United States in an effort to bring down gangs and put an end to their crime sprees.In many cities, the focus is on eliminating the leadership of gang enterprises. According to Pistole, the goal is to do more than just disrupt their activities—it is to â€Å"dismantle them entirely. † He explains: Taking apart a gang is like demolishing a building. Hacking away at individual walls and beams might damage the building, but it doesn't destroy it. But using federal drug and racketeering statutes is akin to dynamiting the foundation. On ce the gang's leadership infrastructure implodes, all members are weakened. It becomes difficult for the group to operate.Eventually, it crumbles. And so our strategy is to prosecute as many gang leaders, members, and associates as possible so there are no pieces left which are large enough to allow the gang to rebuild. 18 How Serious a Problem Are Gangs? â€Å"Following a marked decline from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s, a steady resurgence of gang problems has occurred in recent years. † —James C. Howell, Arlen Egley Jr. , and Christina O'Donnell, research associates with the National Gang Center. â€Å"Wherever MS-13 goes, violence follows.Gang members have carried out beheadings and grenade attacks in Central America and have hacked people with machetes in cities along the East Coast in the United States. † —Jessica M. Vaughan and John D. Feere, policy analysts with the Center for Immigration Studies. For people in many areas of the world, includi ng the United States, gang violence is a harsh reality of life. According to the U. S. Department of Justice, the problem in America is growing worse. The Justice Department estimates that the number of gang members totaled about 1 million as of September 2008, which was an increase from 800,000 in 2005.One reason gangs continue to grow larger and more powerful is that they are fostering relationships with criminal organizations in Mexico, Central America, and Canada. This has led to a proliferation of drugs and weapons being smuggled across the U. S. border as well as an influx of illegal aliens who join gangs. To emphasize the seriousness of America's gang violence, FBI director John Pistole tells the story of a young woman who was working at a Los Angeles outdoor market in September 2007. Her newborn son, Luis, was beside her is his stroller.Members of the 18th Street gang approached one of the market's vendors, telling him that he could not sell his goods in their territory unle ss he paid them rent. He had steadfastly refused to meet their demands in the past, and when he continued to do so at the market, gang members drew their guns and opened fire on him. The man survived, but Luis did not. A stray bullet struck the baby and killed him instantly. Pistole says that this tragic incident is indicative of what is happening throughout the country: â€Å"In too many neighborhoods, too many young people are recruited into gangs.They fall into a life of crime, drugs, and violence. They shoot each other, with no regard to the innocent bystanders caught in the crossfire. Crime and violence are not confined to their cliques, but have a chilling effect on entire communities. â€Å"19 A Ruthlessly Vicious Gang Of all the gangs known to law enforcement, Mara Salvatrucha, or MS ­13, is one of the most violent. It started as a small Los Angeles street gang formed during the 1980s by immigrants from El Salvador. Now, however, it is among the largest and most dangerou s gangs in the United States and Central America.According to the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), MS-13 has â€Å"mushroomed into the size of a small army† and â€Å"strives to be the most violent and feared gang in the world. â€Å"20 ICE states that MS-13 members have been convicted of murder, assault, extortion, kidnapping, theft, drug dealing, rape, robbery, and other violent crimes. One city that is plagued by the violence of MS-13 is Houston, Texas. Although larger gangs are active in the city, the FBI considers MS-13 to be â€Å"of particular concern because members are often heavily armed and well trained in the use of weapons and assault tactics. 21 In January 2009 MS-13 gang members robbed a Houston beauty salon at gunpoint and sexually assaulted an employee. They warned her not to go to the police, saying that if she did she would regret it. They also threatened the salon owner, telling her that they would kill her if she reported the incide nt, and they demanded that she pay them a weekly protection fee of $100. The salon owner was terrified—but she was also angry. She had seen the same kinds of crimes committed in her native El Salvador, and she was determined to fight to keep them from happening in her adopted country.Even though she feared for her life and the lives of her family members, she went to the FBI and told agents what happened. During that visit she turned over a security surveillance tape that showed the gang members' faces. About a week later the woman had not paid the protection money. In retaliation, two MS-13 gangbangers drove by the salon and sprayed the front door with bullets—but they did not get away with the violent act. Because of the tapes and the salon owner's cooperation, the FBI agents arrested seven members of the gang. As one agent explains: â€Å"This case is proof that victims of crime should not suffer in silence. He adds that the salon owner, who was placed in protectiv e custody by the FBI, â€Å"was courageous to stand up to gang members, and as a result those gang members are now in jail. â€Å"22 Violent Communities Located on the shores of Lake Michigan, Chicago is often called one of America's most beautiful cities. With its tree-lined neighborhoods of stately brownstone homes, the â€Å"Magnificent Mile† shopping district, prolific theaters and restaurants, and world-renowned museums, the city attracts tourists from many different countries—yet it also has a dark and dangerous side.Law enforcement officials estimate that 50 to 60 gangs are active in Chicago and that together, they have as many as 30,000 members. Armed gangbangers roam the streets of the South Side of Chicago, committing crimes and terrorizing the people who live there. A chilling testament to this gang violence is evident in one of the city's lesser-known monuments: an arrangement of more than 150 landscaping stones, each bearing the name of a school-age chil d killed by gang violence since 2007. Police superintendent Jody Weis states that Chicago youth have become increasingly more violent over the years.He explains: â€Å"There's simply too many gangs, too many guns and too many drugs on the streets. We've got a problem with some of our young people . . . resorting to use of weapons and violence to solve any type of conflicts they may have. â€Å"23 Chicago has had a problem with gang violence for many years, but public outrage was sparked in 2007 when a 16-year-old honors student named Blair Holt was killed. Holt, who was not involved with a gang, was riding in a city bus with a friend when members of rival gangs started shooting at each other. He attempted to shield his friend by pushing her down into a seat.His heroic act saved her life, but he was fatally shot in the stomach. Afterward, his father, a Chicago police officer, expressed his despair and frustration over gangs who do not think twice about killing people: â€Å"You wo nder where it comes from. What causes a child to wantonly and blatantly hatch such an ill-conceived plan? To go out and do something like this? What makes them do it? Where is this coming from? What are the influences? â€Å"24 Chicago is far from alone in its ongoing struggle with gang violence. It is prevalent in communities all over the country.In South Carolina, for instance, the rate of gang violence has risen nearly 1,000 percent over the past decade, with the highest number of incidents reported in Colleton County. Although Colleton County is home to just 38,000 people, law enforcement investigators have identified about 20 active gangs with an estimated total of 400 members. According to Sheriff George Malone, â€Å"The violence in Colleton County is out of control. â€Å"25 One incident occurred in November 2009 in the small town of Walterboro. A group of people were playing cards in the front yard of their home when a car pulled up and suddenly opened fire on the group. A 20-month-old toddler and 2 adults were killed; 6 others were injured. Gangs in the Military According to the Justice Department, gang activity is on the upswing in the military. Members of every major street gang and some outlaw motorcycle gangs have been identified on both domestic and international military bases. One incident involved three soldiers stationed in Alaska who were charged with murder after killing a civilian as they shot at members of a rival gang. Another involved a soldier who was arrested in October 2007 for the gang-related shooting of five people in Oklahoma.A 2009 Yale Law Journal article describes one case in which a marine sergeant who was a gang member â€Å"shot his commanding officer and executive officer—both lieutenant colonels—and threatened to continue killing officers until his fellow gang members were released from confinement. â€Å"26 While on active duty, gang members may abuse their security privileges and access to weapons and other military equipment to further gang activities. For instance, military gang members may take advantage of their positions to engage in criminal acts such as trafficking illicit drugs or weapons.According to the same article, a gang member in the army who was stationed in Iraq smuggled home four AK ­47 assault rifles that were later used to commit multiple bank robberies. After gang members have been discharged from the military, they remain a serious threat to society. They can use their combat skills against rival gangs and also teach those skills to others. The Justice Department says that this poses a â€Å"potentially significant threat,† as it explains: â€Å"Gang members with military training pose a unique threat to law enforcement personnel because of the distinctive military skills that they possess . . especially if gang members trained in weapons, tactics, and planning pass this instruction on to other gang members. â€Å"27 The Justice Department adds th at such military training could ultimately result in more organized, sophisticated, and dangerous gangs as well as an increase of deadly assaults on law enforcement officers. Incarcerated Gangs Incarcerated gang members are every bit as threatening as those who are on the streets because gang members who are behind bars often control crimes that are committed outside of prison.One example is the Mexican Mafia (also known as the Eme), a violent prison gang with as many as 75,000 members. The incarcerated leaders rule over associates who are given the authority to order crimes in neighborhoods or cities. Tony Rafael, the author of the book The Mexican Mafia, explains: â€Å"Street gangsters very often are puppets of the big homies locked up in prison. The proof is overwhelming and plays itself out on an almost daily basis in almost every neighborhood in Southern California. â€Å"28Members of the Mexican Mafia and their associates have been connected with kidnapping, murder, drug tr afficking, and extortion, among other crimes. According to Rafael, the gang has grown into a large, powerful, and violent organization. He writes: â€Å"It has far-reaching intelligence and communications systems, as well as a standing army of thousands of street soldiers. â€Å"29 Rafael adds that the Mexican Mafia continues to expand its power over street crime: â€Å"Most neighborhoods in Southern California that have a strong Hispanic street gang presence feel the power of the Mexican Mafia.It took local and state law enforcement over twenty years from the founding of the Mexican Mafia to recognize its influence on the streets. It took another two decades for federal law enforcement to address the Eme as a significant criminal organization. â€Å"30 Aside from controlling crime on the streets, these gangs are also involved in violent acts inside prisons. This is a serious problem in Ohio, where attacks in state prisons have doubled from nearly 500 in 2005 to more than 1,000 during 2008.Corrections officials say that part of the increase in violence is due to an influx of gangs such as the Heartless Felons, who are known for attacking prisoners in bands of six or more. Some of the worst violence has broken out at Mansfield Reformatory, a prison built for 1,536 inmates that now houses 2,475–161 percent over capacity. â€Å"These are dangerous times,† says Shirley Pope, the director of the state's Correctional Institutional Inspection Committee. â€Å"Mansfield is overcrowded. It is understaffed and on top of that, it has this peculiar group of younger inmates who have been described as incredibly vicious.An Ongoing Problem Whether they are terrorizing people in neighborhoods, committing crimes while in the military, or reigning over street crime from inside prisons, gangs are a significant problem all over the United States. Law enforcement officials report that gangs now have a presence in every U. S. state and the District of Columbia, a nd gang membership appears to be growing. According to reports from local, state, and federal authorities, there is no sign that this situation will change anytime in the near future.

Chilean Copper Mine Collapse Essay

When an unforeseen tragedy comes into a small community, the devastation can cause havoc. The members of the Chilean society found themselves with more questions than answers when word spread there had been a collapse in a local mine. The families of the trapped mine workers and employees affected were in need of guidance. When communicating the messages to Chilean people, awareness of the audience played an important role in ensuring all measures were being taken to save the miners lives. Trapped Miners in San Jose Mine During the summer of 2010, the San Jose, Chile copper mine collapsed trapping 33 miners inside. The employees of the mine, owned by Minera San Esteban Primera, were informed that the miners were trapped at a depth of approximately 300 meters with little to no food, water and oxygen. In the days that followed the initial collapse, a second collapse occurred leaving both rescuers and spectators wondering if the miners were even alive. (Weik, 2010). Considering the Audience It is important to remember the current state of shock, travesty and unawareness of the receivers within the Chilean community following the mines collapse. The families of the victims as well as the employees of the mine are in desperate need of answers and reassurance that rescuers are doing everything in their power to save the trapped miners. The messages relayed to these individuals need to be calm and collective while providing them with the information and details that are attainable at the current time. Government and mine officials also need to prepare to communicate to the employees and public future actions to be taken to prevent reoccurrence of this disaster. Families Potential Needs At the time of this catastrophe, the families of the trapped miners are in need of the most important thing in their lives at that moment, their trapped loved one. The families will need to be provided with a basic understanding of the factors involved with the collapse and what potential outcomes may occur. They will be in need of reassurance and comfort that all actions are being taken to confirm that a positive result will conclude this horrible misfortune. Lastly, it is important to provide the families with a plan in which rescuers are following and explain how the family member’s roles in saving the trapped miners are clarified. Employees Potential Needs Much like the families potential needs, the employees of the Chilean mine also need reassurance and guidance. It is likely that although the employees are concerned about how this collapse is going to affect them in the future, in the present moment they are concerned about the survival of their coworkers. A clear message will need to be presented to the employees indicating what role they can take in providing the rescuers with details they may need to help assist in the retrieval of the trapped miners. They also may be in need of counseling and other types of treatment as a result of experiencing such horrible events. Necessary Actions Prior to the messages being given, it is vital that the communicator has been provided with as many details as possible. This is important to know information that is both provided and withheld from the public for their safety. The message needs to be reviewed by both the mine company as well as any government officials involved in the incident. After a message has been communicated to the families and employees involved in the mine collapse, the most important actions to be taken is verification and understanding of the message. The communicator can provide these individuals with resources to assist them during this time such as crisis counselors. It will also be beneficial to make available written communication points that the families and employees can reference back to with questions and concerns. Lastly, a plan for continued communication is vital is supporting these individuals. It is important for a communicator to be aware of their audience, especially following a tragedy such as the Chilean mine collapse, when giving the message to the families and employees involved. The proper approach to relaying this message will provide the necessary support to instill the much needed sense of safety and security. Understanding the position of the receiver and their potential needs will assist in communicating the message intended. References Weik, J. (2010). Over 30 workers trapped after Chilean copper mine collapse. Metal Bulletin Daily, (224), 65.

Thomas Edison3 essays

Thomas Edison3 essays Thomas A. Edison and his Kinetographic Motion Pictures. Rutgers University Press. This book gave me a lot of the information I needed on the basic history of Thomas Edisons work in the motion picture industry. There were also pictures which helped me better understand the information. Thomas Alva Edison: inventing the electric age. Adair, Gene. 1996.Oxford University Press: New York. This book also gave me information on his inventions with pictures. It also gave me information on other work that Edison did and why he was interested in inventing devices for the movie industry. Motion Pictures, History of. http://encarta.msn.com (6 Dec. 2000). Microsoft Encarta This online encyclopedia also gave me information on not only Thomas Edisons contribution to the movie industry, but also the whole history and origins of movies ...

Mean, Median, and Mode - Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, Median, and Mode - Measures of Central Tendency Measures of central tendency are numbers that describe what is average or typical within a distribution of data. There are three main measures of central tendency: mean, median, and mode. While they are all measures of central tendency, each is calculated differently and measures something different from the others. The Mean The mean is the most common measure of central tendency used by researchers and people in all kinds of professions. It is the measure of central tendency that is also referred to as the average. A researcher can use the mean to describe the data distribution of  variables measured as intervals or ratios. These are variables that include numerically corresponding categories or ranges (like race, class, gender, or level of education), as well as variables measured numerically from a scale that begins with zero (like household income or the number of children within a family). A mean is very easy to calculate. One simply has to add all the data values or scores and then divide this sum by the total number of scores in the distribution of data. For example, if five families have 0, 2, 2, 3, and 5 children respectively, the mean number of children is (0 2 2 3 5)/5 12/5 2.4. This means that the five households have an average of 2.4 children. The Median The median is the value at the middle of a distribution of data when those data are organized from the lowest to the highest value. This measure of central tendency can be calculated for variables that are measured with ordinal, interval or ratio scales. Calculating the median is also rather simple.  Let’s suppose we have the following list of numbers: 5, 7, 10, 43, 2, 69, 31, 6, 22. First, we must arrange the numbers in order from lowest to highest. The result is this: 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 22, 31, 43, 69. The median is 10 because it is the exact middle number. There are four numbers below 10 and four numbers above 10. If your data distribution has an even number of cases which means that there is no exact middle, you simply adjust the data range slightly in order to calculate the median. For example,  if we add the number 87 to the end of our list of numbers above, we have 10 total numbers in our distribution, so there is no single middle number. In this case, one takes the average of the scores for the two middle numbers. In our new list, the two middle numbers are 10 and 22. So, we take the average of those two numbers: (10 22) /2 16. Our median is now 16. The Mode The mode is the measure of central tendency that identifies the category or score that occurs the most frequently within the distribution of data.  In other words, it is the most common score or the score that appears the highest number of times in a distribution. The mode can be calculated for any type of data, including those measured as nominal variables, or by name. For example, let’s say we are looking at pets owned by 100 families and the distribution looks like this: Animal  Ã‚  Ã‚  Number of families that own it Dog:  60Cat:  35Fish: 17Hamster: 13Snake:  3 The mode here is dog since more families own a dog than any other animal. Note that the mode is always expressed as the category or score, not the frequency of that score. For instance, in the above example, the mode is dog, not 60, which is the number of times dog appears. Some distributions do not have a mode at all. This happens when  each category has the same frequency. Other distributions might have more than one mode. For example, when a distribution has two scores or categories with the same highest frequency, it is often referred to as bimodal.

Expected Value of a Binomial Distribution

Expected Value of a Binomial Distribution Binomial distributions are an important class of discrete probability distributions. These types of distributions are a series of n independent Bernoulli trials, each of which has a constant probability p of success. As with any probability distribution we would like to know what its mean or center is. For this we are really asking, â€Å"What is the expected value of the binomial distribution?† Intuition vs. Proof If we carefully think about a binomial distribution, it is not difficult to determine that the expected value of this type of probability distribution is np. For a few quick examples of this, consider the following: If we toss 100 coins, and X is the number of heads, the expected value of X is 50 (1/2)100.If we are taking a multiple choice test with 20 questions and each question has four choices (only one of which is correct), then guessing randomly would mean that we would only expect to get (1/4)20 5 questions correct. In both of these examples we see that  E[ X ] n p. Two cases is hardly enough to reach a conclusion. Although intuition is a good tool to guide us, it is not enough to form a mathematical argument and to prove that something is true. How do we prove definitively that the expected value of this distribution is indeed np? From the definition of expected value and the probability mass function for the binomial distribution of n trials of probability of success p, we can demonstrate that our intuition matches with the fruits of mathematical rigor. We need to be somewhat careful in our work and nimble in our manipulations of the binomial coefficient that is given by the formula for combinations. We begin by using the formula: E[ X ] ÃŽ £ x0n x C(n, x)px(1-p)n – x. Since each term of the summation is multiplied by x, the value of the term corresponding to x 0 will be 0, and so we can actually write: E[ X ] ÃŽ £ x 1n x C(n , x) p x (1 – p) n – x . By manipulating the factorials involved in the expression for C(n, x) we can rewrite x C(n, x) n C(n – 1, x – 1). This is true because: x C(n, x) x n!/(x!(n – x)!) n!/((x – 1)!(n – x)!) n(n – 1)!/((x – 1)!((n – 1) – (x – 1))!) n C(n – 1, x – 1). It follows that: E[ X ] ÃŽ £ x 1n n C(n – 1, x – 1) p x (1 – p) n – x . We factor out the n and one p from the above expression: E[ X ] np ÃŽ £ x 1n C(n – 1, x – 1) p x – 1 (1 – p) (n – 1) - (x – 1) . A change of variables r x – 1 gives us: E[ X ] np ÃŽ £ r 0n – 1 C(n – 1, r) p r (1 – p) (n – 1) - r . By the binomial formula, (x y)k ÃŽ £ r 0 kC( k, r)xr yk – r the summation above can be rewritten: E[ X ] (np) (p (1 – p))n – 1 np. The above argument has taken us a long way. From beginning only with the definition of expected value and probability mass function for a binomial distribution, we have proved that what our intuition told us. The expected value of the binomial distribution B( n, p) is n p.

Project management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project management - Essay Example External groups, Individuals, Clients, Contractors, Funding Partners, Consultants, Employees and Work Force, and other government / regulatory organizations can be identified as stakeholders in a project, (Bourne, 2010). Further, categorizing the stakeholders according to the degree or level of impact they can put on a project activity or can get impacted by it. This knowledge of stakeholders assists in evaluating how the various interests of stakeholders should be addressed and managed in an efficient manner. 1.1. Role of Stakeholder Management The role of stakeholder management is to create utility for the project manager in order to get acquainted with all the participants / stakeholders of the project and their respective interests, create an equilibrium between the inputs / contribution and the incentive given by and to the stakeholder, set up an unbiased basis for effectively managing individual stakeholder requirements, decide the participation level of each stakeholder during the planning and execution part of the project, promoting stakeholder interests in the project through effective communication strategy and offering rewards to shareholders. Stakeholder analysis can be carried out at the commencement of the project or at regular intervals during the execution to track the changes in the attitudes of project stakeholders as the project advances, (Patrick, 2008). 1.2 Significance The significance of Stakeholder management lies in the need to make clear the consequences of predicted modifications, potential risks, and opportunities that face the project. Stakeholder management is also vital since it helps to identify the risks and planning for strategies to reduce the effects of risks on the project, (Deming, 1982). 1.3 Stakeholder Categories Stakeholders can be easily classified into four different categories depending upon their potential to collaborate or threaten the project execution or results. 1. Supportive stakeholders are those who do not wis h to threaten the project proceedings and desire to support the project goals and objectives. These types of supportive stakeholders may include the suppliers, funding organizations, company management and consultants. 2. Marginal Stakeholders are those who are neither extremely menacing nor helpful, even though they possess a large stake in the project and can affect the decisions, but are not in general concerned. These may consist of environmentalist groups, and media. 3. Non Supportive Stakeholders are those that have an elevated potential to influence the project in a threatening manner but are short on the potential for cooperation and are the most worrying source of concern for the project manager. These may include the labor unions, governmental organizations, and at times the media. 4. The  mixed stakeholders possess an equal potential to assist or threaten the project and usually consist of clients, end users of the project, (Rowley, 1997). 1.4 Efficient management of St akeholder management Lastly, in order to effectively manage stakeholders within a project environment, it is

Reader Based Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Reader Based Writing - Essay Example Moreover, the staff will initiate better relationships with the clients since the acquisition of this knowledge will propel them. This improvement is possible only after we undertake this program and motivate the staff through appraisals, and other forms of appreciation. This program will attribute additional skills to the workers. This report explores the essence of the adoption of the quality leadership program to the organization. The organization requires establishing an objective that will compel the employees to converge their efforts towards accomplishing it. The predominant element in this endeavor is the enhancement of the efficiency of the organization, which will consequently advance the output of CSSI INC. The alignment of aims of CSSI will enable it to expand successfully. This program will be beneficial to CSSI INC if the training can address elements such as: Therefore, the training should incorporate the strategic aims that the organization expects to attain. According to Shammot (158), inclusion of experts to assist in heightening of the expertise of the workforce will advance the agility of the staff. In addition, the employees will establish innovative methods to counter the impediments that perturb the organization. Evidently, participation of employees n this endeavor will initiate innovation since the workforce will acknowledge mechanism that will ensure efficient operation of tasks. This program should incorporate exercises to promote integrity, as this will motivate the workers to be fair and establish an appropriate foundation for teamwork to develop (Shammot 160). Cordial relations of the workforce are essential since it can initiate cooperation among the personnel. This can promote coordination among the departments and eventually they will make a synchronized effort towards the corporation’s objectives. Finally, it is vital that the program entails the aspirations of the company. CSSI should be

Understanding Religious Experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Understanding Religious Experience - Essay Example In this paper, the role of mystic women in different religious philosophies will be tackled as well as the basic tenets of these religions as to fully understand mysticism as a specific type of religious experience. The etymology of mysticism can be traced from its Greek roots which literally mean â€Å"to conceal.† Revels contends that mysticism is rooted from something deeper which â€Å"goes beyond the senses, intellect, and imagination,† leaving it unexplained. It provides a conscious â€Å"extemporaneous experience† of connecting with the One. Martin stated that mysticism offers a difficult to describe event that often, the mystic would describe it in a negative way (155). According to Woods, mysticism is not a religion in itself, but an essential element of a religion (20). In Catholicism for example, a person is granted sainthood if he or she has lived a holy life, follows the ideals of the Catholic Church earnestly, and has offered at least two miracles after death. Several catholic saints have experienced mysticism during their lifetime, to name a few: there is Saint Joan of Arc, who had a vision of Christ from her childhood; Sister Faustina who had a vision of the abysses of hell; and St. Nicholas, who became a popular Christmas symbol. In contrast with Woods, Professor Caird defined mysticism as an â€Å"exclusive religion† wherein the â€Å"attitude of the mind is swallowed up† in order to reach a full relation to God (qtd. in Fleming 5). The nature of mysticism is constant with that of spirituality and provides a â€Å"revolt against cold formality and religious torpor† (Woods 20). Themes of mysticism are often associated with the presence of the Supreme Being felt by the senses. Underhill quoted the mystic experience as a point of departure into the world of spirituality and â€Å"denying the world in order that it may find reality† (2). A feeling

Reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 28

Reflection - Essay Example One is significantly disturbed by the facts that were shown in the video regarding increasing patterns of childhood obesity. The information which discloses that at early stages, there are still remedial strategies which could avert the greater tendencies for weight gain. The recommendation to avoid obesity really starts with lifestyle change. This means that there are collaborative measures that must be instituted to avoid and prevent childhood obesity: the observance and adherence to balanced and healthy diet; the need to emphasize the value of physical activity and regular exercise; as well as the change in personal outlook and perspectives (focus on engaging in outdoor activities, rather than over indulgence in watching television or playing in personal computers). Society has a role to play in terms of changing focus of advertisements to children, especially for food and products which are healthy and of natural

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal Statement Example I have taken the highest level of math courses available to me, and have always felt that mathematics come very naturally to me, but I also have always been able to understand complex systems such as those in biology or chemistry. I think that my understanding of systems and my affinity for mathematics will lead to me being highly successful as a major in economics. My interest in economics largely stems from the recession which seems to have dominated American life for most of the time in my life when I could understand such issues, and shows no sign of improving drastically for another great portion of my life. It seems incredible that it was possible for so much false wealth to be generated simply by banking practices and poorly loans, and that the drop in one area of financing could lead to a cascade reaction that has such immense global consequences. I want to study economics to be able to understand how all of this could have happened – and how it can be prevented in the future. ... But it also asks for an experience that is important to you, and I would like to focus on that. Throughout high-school I have volunteered in a wide variety of places in a very organized fashion, but there was one experience that I remember that stood out especially for me. A few years ago there was a storm in my town that caused extensive property damage to my family’s house and all of the houses in the vicinity – and the work of clearing up took a long time. Once many of the families were well progressed in clear broken trees and other damages from their property, it became apparent that a neighbor of mine who I had never met was not clearing their property at all – when I noticed this I asked my parent why this was the case, and they reminded me that the couple that lived there was fairly old and might not be able to clear the property themselves. I decided that it would probably be a good thing to go check on them, and see if they could use some help clearing their property. At first they said they had it under control, but upon talking to them more I learned that they were trying to save up money to hire a cleaning crew, because they could not do the work on their own, but crews were so expensive they were having a hard time at it. I offered to help, and over the next few days spent an hour or two a day clearing their property, which was a slow process and eventually got very frustrating. On the third day, however, another neighbor stopped by and asked why I was doing this when it was not my property, and so I told them the story, and they offered to help a few hours to. The next day another person stopped by, and before too long we had nearly a dozen people working to clear the property, and it was finished in less than a

What changes have enabled Michael Porter to see Procurement Essay

What changes have enabled Michael Porter to see Procurement (Purchasing) in a more strategic light - Essay Example Porter explains when a unique product is produced; a firm could have the advantage to set premium price for it, calling it as a differentiation advantage. In addition, he wants to point out there is competitive advantage earned when a firm could produce existing similar product offerings, but at lower cost. He calls this cost advantage. Today, most, if not all, firms require outsourcing almost everything just in order to provide or come up with service or product offerings. This can be clearly elaborated in the value chain, which at the bottom line, one would be able to realize the associated cost generated in production of certain product or service. In order to achieve cost advantage as Porter defines, it is therefore important to at least minimize or cut cost in order to produce offerings that would have competitive price. Procurement or purchasing is an important component in Michael Porter’s value chain model. In this model, he originally identifies procurement to be just a support activity. However, recently, he emphasises the potential strategic contribution of procurement to shared value, as published in the Harvard Business Review. Concerning Porter’s recent claim, this paper tries to present the existing trend to justify whether opportunities for purchasing to contribute more strategically have increased, and how it might have addressed relevant matters in the difficult economic conditions facing organisations today. Significant trending Purchasing together with its strategic importance has long been remarkably considered, but there was actually less appreciation of it when it comes to what it can actually do with business performance. Concerning this issue, a study with empirical analysis conducted on 141 industrial companies reveals interaction among purchasing efficacy (purchasing strategic objectives and capabilities) and strategic integration of purchasing (between business strategy and purchasing strategic objectives) (Benito, 2007 , p.901). Today, one essential point of understanding the actual strategic importance of purchasing can be viewed within the context of its actual contribution to business performance. So this goes with finding interesting stuffs about the likelihood of its contribution to creation of profit, customer satisfaction, increase market share and more. After all, business performance might include different metrics that could help measure and as bases of actual business growth. Regarding this, it has become a considerable point to constantly investigate purchasing using various empirical researches just to be able to quantify its actual significance as a strategic function. A recent study conducted to investigate the empirical contribution of purchasing and supply management (PSM) to the company’s success generated a substantial result based on the information gathered from the international survey of 306 major companies from eight industry sectors (Hartmann et al., 2012, p.22). Th e study showcases empirical evidence leading to the point PSM has remarkable contribution to the company success. The contributed value was found to be mediated by three operational performances such as cost, quality and innovation (Hartmann et al., 2012, p.22). PSM, increasingly regarded by senior management to strategically influence operational performance and financial performance, however, was found to still require external survey methodology that complements the internal perceptional measures of PSM performance, and a comprehensive performance measurement framework

Personal statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal Statement Example I have taken the highest level of math courses available to me, and have always felt that mathematics come very naturally to me, but I also have always been able to understand complex systems such as those in biology or chemistry. I think that my understanding of systems and my affinity for mathematics will lead to me being highly successful as a major in economics. My interest in economics largely stems from the recession which seems to have dominated American life for most of the time in my life when I could understand such issues, and shows no sign of improving drastically for another great portion of my life. It seems incredible that it was possible for so much false wealth to be generated simply by banking practices and poorly loans, and that the drop in one area of financing could lead to a cascade reaction that has such immense global consequences. I want to study economics to be able to understand how all of this could have happened – and how it can be prevented in the future. ... But it also asks for an experience that is important to you, and I would like to focus on that. Throughout high-school I have volunteered in a wide variety of places in a very organized fashion, but there was one experience that I remember that stood out especially for me. A few years ago there was a storm in my town that caused extensive property damage to my family’s house and all of the houses in the vicinity – and the work of clearing up took a long time. Once many of the families were well progressed in clear broken trees and other damages from their property, it became apparent that a neighbor of mine who I had never met was not clearing their property at all – when I noticed this I asked my parent why this was the case, and they reminded me that the couple that lived there was fairly old and might not be able to clear the property themselves. I decided that it would probably be a good thing to go check on them, and see if they could use some help clearing their property. At first they said they had it under control, but upon talking to them more I learned that they were trying to save up money to hire a cleaning crew, because they could not do the work on their own, but crews were so expensive they were having a hard time at it. I offered to help, and over the next few days spent an hour or two a day clearing their property, which was a slow process and eventually got very frustrating. On the third day, however, another neighbor stopped by and asked why I was doing this when it was not my property, and so I told them the story, and they offered to help a few hours to. The next day another person stopped by, and before too long we had nearly a dozen people working to clear the property, and it was finished in less than a

The role of the IMF in helping poor and debt-troubled countries Essay

The role of the IMF in helping poor and debt-troubled countries - Essay Example ionality, the reasons why the IMF indulges itself into helping poor and debt troubled countries, the ethical issues involves, and the effects of IMF loans on a country’s economy. The IMF seeks to help poor and debt troubled countries so to stabilize the countries’ recovery from balance of payment deficits, and to stabilize exchange rates. The IMF also performs evaluation and compilation of its member countries’ economies, and in the case of financial crisis, the IMF intervenes by providing loans on conditions for restructuring economies to avoid future crisis. The IMF lends itself to developing countries so to ensure the â€Å"revolving character† of the Fund whereby, the funds given to a certain country can be made available to another country in need. The policies’ structure and corrective measures are designed in such a manner that ensures the funds will be repaid, and availed to other members of the Fund in future. According to the IMF, conditionality refers to the policies that a member country should follow in order to gain access to the Fund. That is the conditions that the members are supposed to abide by, so to access the financial resources of the International Monetary Fund. Some of the conditions that the IMF implements is that a country must change its financial policies to get support; the bigger the country, the bigger the financial need, therefore, the more stringent the policy formulations. In a loan approved for Niger in 2005, the fund asked for an â€Å"extension in VAT on processed foods including; sugar, milk, wheat, flour†, a reduction in tax exemption on necessities such as water and electricity, and an increase in excise tax on sodas and other soft drinks. The IMF closely monitors how these funds are used in a bid to ensure that the funds are used as agreed, and not for any other purpose. 1. The member country is the national owner of its political and other resources; therefore should partake in the formulation of policies for the

The History Of Bitumen Engineering Essay

The History Of Bitumen Engineering Essay Bitumen is described as mankinds oldest engineering material. This fact is supported by some evidence. Back at the time, nearly 3000 years BC, the Sumerians in Mesopotamia used bitumen to fasten ivory or pearl into the eye sockets of their statues. They also sculptured votive offerings which the mixture of their sculpture is originally from bitumen and clay. From the finding, it is proven that some thousand years later, bitumen was being used by the early Babylonians as a building material because of its properties as a cement and water proofing agent. Later, bitumen became the standard material and being used in civil engineering and architectural projects to hold bricks and stones together which used to line drains, watercourses and grain storage. It was also being used to create damp courses and seal the flat roofs of the houses in the same way as it is used today. It is also important in paving (Ask.com, 21 Dec 2010). Other Evidence found that, about 600 BC King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon rebuilt the city wall, which he intends to restrain the water of the Euphrates with burnt bricks and bitumen because the old wall which is made of dried clay bricks had failed to keep the waters at the bay. The Babylonians had developed a technique using layer of bricks, bitumen and clay which they reinforced with reed for construction purposes. The system was so successful whereas they were able to build towers up to twelve storeys high. The evidence is proven when archeologists excavating the site of the ancient city and they found traces that bitumen had been used for the construction of the building. Instead of using bitumen for construction, the reason why bitumen was widely used in this area was its availability in various forms. It can be found in certain places where we can find it easily. It was also available as a solid material in the form of bituminous limestone, which was used as the basis for small carvings. Because of its availability, bitumen has taken parts in many great legends of Biblical and pre-Biblical times. It is said that, bitumen has being used in the building of the Tower of Babel and for the waterproofing of Noahs Ark and Moses wicker basket (Zayn Bilkadi, Dec 1984). The Romans used bitumen for medicinal purposes whereas they use bitumen for preventing and curing a number of ailments including boils, toothache and ringworm. Meanwhile, Roman ladies used bitumen for cosmetic purposes whereas they used bitumen as a means of beautifying their eyebrows. Bitumen also was being used for maritime usage whereas Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh found that the lakes of asphalt in Trinidad are useful for re-caulking their ships for the return voyage. Apart from maritime usage, bitumen was used mainly for medicinal, cosmetic and crop protection purposes. On the other hand, the German metallurgist Georg Agricola was writing in the early part of the sixteenth century that Bitumen is produced from mineral waters containing oil, also from liquid bitumen and from rocks containing bitumen. Liquid bitumen sometimes floats in large quantities on the surface of wells, brooks and rivers and is collected with buckets or other pots. Small quantities are collected by means of feathers, linen towels and the like. The bitumen easily adheres to these objects and is collected in big copper or iron vessels and the lighter fractions evaporated by heating. The residual oil is used for different purposes and some people mix it with pitch, others with used axle oil to make it thicker. On the other hand, the entry for bitumen in Blounts Glossary published in 1656 defined it as a kind of clay or slime naturally clammy, like pitch, growing in some countries of Asia. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the usage of bitumen for the road construction is to solve the problem of the dust raised by the horse-drawn traffic in towns. The availability of supply of tar from local coal-gas works led to the use of tar for treating streets and pavements. They started to realize the important of streets and road which would lead to the unimagined standard of smoothness and durability for the elements needed for their creation in the future. Rock asphalt and the Trinidad Lake were the sources of bitumen first used to bind mixtures of aggregates in road building in the modern style. (Asphalt Origin,) Nowadays, a small scale of high quality bitumen can be exploited from petroleum which is a readily available source of low cost. The production of bitumen grew with the rise of the motorcar and the universal demand for paved highways. The proportion of bitumen which is resulted from petroleum refining whereas lead that today most bitumen sources is from the distillation of crude petroleum oil. (BP , 2010). 2.2 Bitumen Bitumen is a versatile material that is widely used in civil engineering. Bitumen is a mixture of organic liquid that are black, oily, highly viscous that is a naturally occurring organic product by product of decomposed organic materials. This basically consists of hydrocarbons ,carbon hydrogen the rest becomes oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and trace the various metals such as nickel, vanadium, lead, chromium, mercury and also arsenic, selenium and other toxic elements. Bitumen can provide good preservation of plants and animal fossils. Bitumen and asphalt is two different things. In American asphalt used to mean bitumen but outside American asphalt refers to the mixture of bitumen and aggregate laid as a road surface. H:TOPEKBitumen Definition_filesBitumenInBeaker2.gif Figure 2.1: Bitumen 2.3 Sources of bitumen Bitumen can be derived from different type of sources. It occurs naturally, but for most occasions, the world relies on petroleum for the supplies of bitumen. The bitumen consists of crude petroleum oil that normally varies between 25% and 40%, but content of crude oil can vary between 15% and 80% (BP 2010). There are three categorization for crude oil bitumen that is bitumen based, paraffin based or bitumen and paraffin based. Bitumen present in the form of colloidal dispersion or in a true solution based on the type of crude petroleum oil. In the refining process, the proportion of oil to bitumen particles changes because of petroleum oil is taken away by distillation. Relatively in few numbers, this particle become closer to one another and their size increase when it is dispersed. At the time the distillation process stopped, the petroleum becomes a colloidal dispersion of black solid known as asphaltenes. This asphaltenes are dispersed in an oily brown yellow liquid, known as the maltenes fraction. It also react as a stabilizing agent to keep the asphaltenes in suspension are another group of hydrocarbon known as resins. Normally bitumen is found in a few forms, from the hard, easily crumbled bitumen in rock asphalt to the softer, more viscous material found in tar sands and so-called asphalt lakes. It is normally consist of varying proportions of mineral and vegetable impurities that need to be extracted before in can be used as engineering material. Bitumen also can be found as asphaltite. It is natural bitumen without an impurity that varies in the amount the asphaltite can be dissolve in carbon disulphide. Natural petroleum like bitumen naturally occurs as the result from the special decompositions of marine debris. After thousands of years it has been move through porous rock such as limestone and sandstone often by volcanic action. In certain areas notable for their petroleum resources, like in the Middle East, semi fluid bitumen can be found oozing out of fissures near hot spring or seeping out of the ground. Rock asphalt, it is more costly to move around and to process. This is because its variable and relative low content of bitumen and tends to be found away from the places where bitumen needed. It is important to distinguish between bitumen and coal tar. Even though coal tar is black and viscous like bitumen, it is obtained from the carbonization of coal that why it is very different chemical properties. Many part of the world in engineering project, from the construction of transcontinental highways to the waterproofing of flat roof surfaces, depending on the specific nature of asphalt. Petroleum crude oil processed by the industry to provide all but a small part of this material is important.(BP, 2010) 2.4 Manufacturing process Manufacturing of bitumen consist of three processes which is refinery process, storage and distribution. 2.4.1 Refinery process In oil refinery process, the crude oil is divided into different groups based on their boiling range. The first stage of refinery process is atmospheric distillation. In this process the crude oil is heated about 3000 C to 3500 C and the more volatile components in the crude oil such as petrol and kerosene are distilled off. Residue from this process called atmosphere residue, which is need further distilled under vacuum. Because of the applied vacuum, the effective distillation point is 5000 C 5600 C. this vacuum distillation process produce more volatile products called as vacuum distillates and leaves vacuum residue which is a non volatile residue of high viscosity. Based on the crude oil origin, the vacuum residue can be used directly as bitumen and for some cases of crude oil it needs additional process to meet certain specification such as air blowing of the residue. To ensure consistent product, the air blowing needs careful selection and control of process temperature, air rate and residence time. In other hand bitumen are produced by blending vacuum residue with asphaltenes which is derived from the production of lubricating oils. The selection of crude is the most important element of bitumen manufacture because it is required expertise and experience to yield a satisfactory product. 2.4.2 Storage Large permanent tank made of mild steel plate use to stored bitumen at refineries with capacities of between 100 and 10000 tones. To make sure the bitumen remain fluid, steam or hot oil is pumped during heating oils in the heavily insulated tanks. 2.4.3 Distribution To make sure the bitumen not cool and unworkable the product must be kept between 150 °C-190 °C throughout the supply chain.  The temperature of bitumen can fall about 7oC to 10oC when it is loaded into a road tanker and it will continue to fall further while in transit. Most of the bitumen will be transferred from the refineries using the road tankers with capacities of 10 to 40 tones. The road tanker is insulated by single-compartment tanks, normally with some kind of heating such as heating tubes. Insulated rail cars are sometimes used to transport bitumen to intermediary depots with reheating facilities. 2.5 Properties of Bitumen Bitumen is a durable and strong adhesive use as a binder in many applications with other material without affecting their properties. Its durability is important to major engineering part such as road and water ways. Bitumen is insoluble in water and can be used as an effective water proofing sealant. Bitumen can be used to line watercourses because it resist and do not react with acid, alkalis, salt and does not contaminate water. Bitumen is soften and thermoplastic material. Bitumen becomes liquid when heated and hardens when it cools. Bitumen can used easily in the area where its need to used because it can readily be liquefied by one of three methods thats applying heat, dissolving it in petroleum solvents or dispersing it in water (emulsification). Total production of bitumen is larger use in road construction. This is because bitumen gives flexibility to the mixed mineral aggregates that been used in road construction. It is available with economic cost all around the world. 2.6 Types of Bitumen There are several types of the bitumen below based on BP bitumen 2010: 2.6.1 Paving grade bitumen This type of bitumen considered as a parent bitumen of the other form of bitumen produced below. It is refined and blended to fulfill the industrial and road engineering specification that considered different climate condition. 2.6.2 Cutback bitumen This type of bitumen has lower viscosity than other types of bitumen. This bitumen has been diluted in order to make it more flow able and suitable for application. Cutback bitumen mostly is used for cold weather bituminous, road construction and maintenance. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. Fluidity of bitumen depends on the proportion of solvent and degree of hardness of the bitumen base. Cutback bitumen classified based to the time it takes to become solid, as rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC) or slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates. SC is used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates. The solvent used for preparation of cutback of bitumen are white spirit commonly used for RC grades, kerosene for MC grades and diesel for SC grades. In view of the environment, health and safety cutback bitumen cause a problem because the solvent used evaporates and currently the evaporation is regarded as a potentially undesirable characteristic. 2.6.3 Bitumen emulsions Frequently the bitumen that been applied to mineral aggregates substrates in road construction is in the form called bitumen emulsion. Bitumen emulsions are the dispersion of bitumen in an aqueous continuous condition and been stabilized by the addition of emulsifier. Bitumen emulsions are the ideal binder can be used in hill road construction which the process of heating the bitumen or aggregates are not easy in that area. Rapid setting emulsions usually used for surface dressing work, Medium setting emulsions use for premix jobs and patch repairs work and slow setting emulsions are ideal use during rainy season. Around 60% of bitumen content in the emulsion and the left over is water (Tom V. Mathew and K V Krishna Rao, 2007). During the road construction, these emulsions will breaks down resulting in released of water and the mix will starts to set. Grade of bitumen affect the time of setting. Bitumen emulsion is ideal for used in road construction because it have low viscosity and workable in ambient temperatures. But to apply this bitumen in road making process, it requires controlled breaking and setting. Bitumen should not break before it is laid on the surface of road but, once it placed, it should break quickly. This implies that the road can be in service without delay. 2.6.4 Modified bitumen Modified bitumen is bitumen treated with modifiers. Certain additives added as bitumen modifiers to improve the service performance by changing such properties as their durability and hardness. Natural rubber, polymer and thermoplastic are commonly used to modify bitumen. This is an exciting development of growing importance due to the ability of modem technology to satisfy the demands of the bitumen and international market. Modified bitumen will contribute towards a longer road life and lower cost maintenance. 2.6.5 Multi-grade Bitumen This type of bitumen is chemically modified bitumen. It has multi properties that are properties of hard paving bitumen at high service temperature with the properties of soft paving grades bitumen at low temperature. Multi-grade bitumen gives improvement in resistance to deformation 2.6.6 Industrial bitumen Industrial bitumen also known as oxidized bitumen. This bitumen is made by blowing air through hot paving grade bitumen called blowing process. The result from blowing process is a product that softens bitumen at higher temperature than provide by paving grade bitumen softens. It also has rubberlike properties and its viscosity is less affected by changes in temperature than is the case with paving grade bitumen. 2.7 Requirement of Bitumen The some requirement properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, Bitumen should fulfill the following properties: (Prof. Tom V. Mathew, 2009) The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing. There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used in the mix. 2.8 Modification of bitumen Many studies have been conducted in order to improve the performance of bitumen used in road pavement by modified bitumen with other material. Additional materials such as rubber, polymer and epoxy resin have been used as modifier in bitumen in the previous research. This study stresses on the usage of fly ash as an additive in bitumen. 2.9 Coal combustion products Fly ash is one of the coal combustion residues. Coal combustion residuals are formed during coal-burning processes in power plants. Coal combustion product consists of several materials: (R.  Majko, 1996). 2.9.1 Fly ash Fly ash is the fines ash of coal ash particles from combustion of coal. It is called fly ash because it is transported from combustion chamber by exhaust gases. Fly ash is a fine powder produce from the mineral contain in coal. It also consists of noncombustible mater in coal and a small amount of carbon thats remains because of incomplete combustion. Fly ash is usually light tan in color. It is commonly consists of silt sized and clay sized glassy spheres which is gives fly ash a consistency somewhat like talcum powder. The property of the fly ash varies based on coal composition used and plant operating system.http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/FlyAsh1.JPG Figure 2.2: fly ash 2.9.2 Bottom ash Bottom ash and fly ash is two different materials in physical, mineralogical and chemical. Bottom ash is a coarse, granular, and incombustible material which is collected from the bottom of furnaces of combustion of coal in generation of electricity. Different with fly ash, bottom ash coarser than fly ash with grain sizes spanning from fine sand to fine gravel. The type of the bottom ash depends on type of furnaces used to burn a coal. http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/BottomAsh1.JPG Figure 2.3: bottom ash 2.9.3 BOILER SLAG Boiler slag is normally a black granular material with numerous engineering uses. It is formed in cyclone boilers which form a molten ash thats cooled with water. Boiler slag is coarser than fly ash.http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/BoilerSlag1.JPG Figure 2.4:boiler slag 2.9.4 FGD GYPSUM Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum is also can be defined as scrubber gypsum. FGD gypsum is the product from an air pollution control system which is removes sulfur from the flue gas in calcium based scrubbing systems. It is composed of calcium sulfate and produced by employing forced oxidation in the scrubber. FGD gypsum is most usually used for agricultural activity and for wallboard production. http://www.undeerc.org/carrc/Assets/FGDMaterial1.JPG Figure 2.5: FGD gypsum 2.10 Production of fly ash Fly ash normally produced from burning of coal for power generation.   Normally coal is pulverized and blown with air into the combustion chamber. In this part the coal will be ignites, generating heat and producing a molten residue. Then the boiler tubes will extract heat from the boiler and then cool the gas in the chimney. This make the residue from the combustion of coal harden and produce ash known as coal combustion products. The coarse ash kwon as bottom ash and  it will fall at the bottom of coal furnaces. In the other hand, the light ash will the light ash will remain suspended in the flue gas and will be collected by electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, or mechanical collection devices such as cyclones. C:Documents and Settingsto_pekDesktopproduction of fly ash.gif Figure 2.6: production of fly ash (ACAA, 1997) 2.11 Utilization and benefit of fly ash Fly ash have been used many part of the engineering application around the world. The table below shows the utilization of fly ash in the engineering part. (Fly ash facts for highway engineers, 2003). Application Benefit used in Portland cement concrete (PCC) -improved workability -decrease water demand -reduced bleeding -improved durability used in stabilized base course -provide a strong and durable mixture -lower cost -suitable for using recycled base material -increased energy efficiency used in flowable fill -allows placement under freezing conditions -reach 100% density with no compactive effort -increase soil bearing capacity -increase the speed and ease of backfilling operations Used in soil improvement -eliminates need for expensive materials -expedites construction works by improving unstable subgrade By improve subgrade conditions, cost saving through reduction in required pavement thickness. Used in asphalt pavement -reduce potential of asphalt stripping due to hydrophobic properties of fly ash -reduce stripping because fly ash consist of lime -a lower cost than other filler Used in grouts for pavement subsealing -develop high ultimate strength -accomplished quickly with minimum effect to the traffic flow. -used to correct undermining without 2.12 Type of fly ash Fly ash is collected use electrostatic precipitators or bag houses and then transferred to large silos for shipment. Fly ash divided base on precise particle size requirement, thus assuring a uniform and quality of product. There are 2 different type of fly ash from combustion of coal in large power plant which is class C and class F. 2.12.1 Class C Class C fly ash is produced usually from lignite and sub-bituminous coals and normally contains significant amount of Calcium Hydroxide (CaO) or lime (Cockrell et. al., 1970). Fly ash class C will harden when exposure to the water. Class C normally contains more than 15% of lime and can reach until 30% of the composition (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007). Higher of CaO in class C fly ash make it more special with self hardening characteristic. This is because calcium is a good adhesive agent. The existence of pozzolan properties in the fly ash class c make it different from fly ash class F. 2.12.2 Class F Class F fly ash is produced from bituminous coals and burning anthracite .Class F is normally contains greater combination of silica, alumina and iron about 70% of the composition but low in lime content usually under about 15% of the composition (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007). This fly ash has Siliceous and aluminous material, which itself possesses little or no cementitious value but in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with Calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to form cementitious compounds (Chu et. al., 1993). 2.13 Characteristic of fly ash 2.13.1 Size and shape Fly ash consist of powdery and fine particle that are in spherical shape, either in solid or hollow and mostly glassy in nature. The carbonaceous in fly ash consist of angular particles. The particle size distribution of bituminous coal fly ashes is usually similar to the silt which is less than a 0.075 mm or No. 200 sieve. Sub bituminous coal fly ashes are similar to the silt size and it is slightly coarser than bituminous coal fly ashes. A coarser particle can result in a less reactive ash and could contain higher carbon contents. Figure 2.7: Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification 2.13.2 Color By depending on the amount of unburned carbon in the ash, the color of fly ash can be found and vary from tan to gray to black. If the fly ash contains low carbon, the color will be lighter. Lignite or sub bituminous fly ashes are typically light tan to buff in color, representing relatively low quantities of carbon in addition to the presence of some lime or calcium. However, bituminous fly ashes are usually some shade of gray, with the lighter shades of gray generally indicating a higher quality of ash.    Figure 2.8: typical fly ash colors 2.13.3 Specific gravity The specific gravity of fly ash is generally varies between 2.1to 3.0 whereas the specific surface area are varies in range from 170 to 1000 m2/kg that been measured by the Blaine air permeability method. 2.13.4 Loss of ignition Loss of ignition is a measured of remaining unburned carbon in a coal. It is a critical property of fly ash need to be measured, especially for concrete applications. High carbon levels, the type of carbon, the interaction of soluble ions in fly ash, and the variability of carbon content can cause air entrainment problem in fresh concrete and can affect the durability of the concrete. In some application of fly ash are not affected by the loss of ignition such as filler in asphalt and flowable fill can accept fly ash with high content of carbon. 2.13.4 Chemistry Chemical compositions of the coal mainly affect the chemical constituents of fly ash. Depending on the coal combustion technology used, the fly ash can be significantly different even though they are produced from the same source and similar chemical composition. Therefore the ash hydration properties with the leaching characteristic can vary a lot between generating facilities. The combustion and glassification process used at certain power plant will affect the quantity of crystalline material versus glassy phase material because these two substances were depends on these two process. When the maximum temperature of the combustion process is above approximately 12000 C and the cooling time is short, the ash produced is mostly glassy phase material (McCarthy et. al., 1987). Crystalline phase calcium compounds are formed where boiler design or operation allows an extra gradual cooling of the ash particles. The factors that affect the hydration and leaching properties of fly ash such as the relative proportion of the spherical glassy phase and crystalline materials, the size distribution of the ash, the chemical nature of glass phase, the type of crystalline material, the nature and the percentage of unburned carbon (Roy et.al, 1985). Generally, the most important factors that influenced the mineralogy of coal fly ash are (Baker, 1987): Chemical composition of the coal Coal combustion process including coal pulverization, combustion, flue gas clean up, and fly ash collection operations Additives used, including oil additives for flame stabilization and corrosion control additives. The minerals present in the coal dictates the elemental composition of the fly ash. The boiler design and operation dictated the mineralogy of the ash. 2.13.5 Chemical Requirements for Fly Ash Classification (Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin, 2007) Properties Fly Ash Class Class F Class C Silicon dioxide (SiO2) plus aluminum oxide (Al2O3) plus iron oxide (Fe2O3), min, % 70.0 50.0 Sulfur trioxide (SO3), max, % 5.0 5.0 Moisture Content, max, % 3.0 3.0 Loss on ignition, max, % 6.0 6.0